Tradition & Innovation (History of Architecture)

Tradition & A ; Innovation ( history of architecture ) Much great architecture of the yesteryear has proceeded by polishing rigorous conventions without truly oppugning them. A much smaller organic structure of work has moved frontward through extremist invention. Use illustrations to demo ( among other things ) that what appears to be radicalism or preservation is non ever what it seems. You could follow a sequence in one topographic point ( such as Brunelleshi ‘s Florence or Pericles ‘ Athens ) or run more widely pulling trial instances from assorted times and topographic points. The Athenian Parthenon has captured the imaginativeness for about two and half thousand old ages. Writers frequently speak of it as the finest architectural accomplishment of the Greeks, incarnating the classical values of harmoniousness and restraint, composure, pose and repose, proportion and economic system ( eg Sowerby 1995, 168 ) . However, the Parthenon is simply one of legion edifices completed as portion of the alleged Periclean edifice programme of the 2nd half of the 5th century BC, which can be examined for the manner their designers made usage of tradition and invention. Other edifices, such as the hypostyle Periclean Odeion that owes much to non-Greek Iranian traditions, likely due to their province of saving and less appealing scene, have tended to be sidelined in treatments of this nature, but are of import however. This essay will first discuss invention and tradition in the development the Grecian temple from its beginnings to the mid-fifth century BC and so research invention and tradition in the Periclean edifice programme itself, associating these to the wider context of Grecian temple architecture. For the Greeks, architecture was a term reserved for public and sacred edifices as opposed to private and domestic buildings ( Whitley 2001, 279 ) . Of these public and sacred edifices, the temple is possibly the most well-known and characteristic signifier, which besides incorporated into their programme sculpture, painting and composing ( Richter 1987, 19 ) . Temples possibly developed from the Mycenaean megaron, a rectangular edifice with a columned porch that formed the cardinal edifice of Late Bronze Age castles ( see program in Stierlin 2001, 34 ) but their beginning in early apsidal edifices, such as that of Lefkandi seems more assured ( see program in Johnston 1993, 25 ) . The architectural significance of these edifices is that they make usage of the colonnade, making an outer portico around the cella ( the inside edifice ) and can therefore be described as peristyle or peripteral ( of a temple ) . Presumably this development occurred from the practical concern of roofing th ese big edifices, which besides used an axial colonnade for support, but was retained, going possibly the specifying feature of Grecian temples, surely still seeable in those of much later periods including the Periclean Parthenon. The reversible roof besides led to the creative activity of a pediment, the triangular infinite or gable formed by the roof above the entryway that would be used to border architectural sculpture. An early illustration of such a adorned pediment from the early 6th century BC is from the temple of Artemis on Corfu ( Johnston 1993, 47-48 ) . It is interesting that, for whatever ground, the apsis was non retained in ulterior edifices and alternatively an opisthodomos ( an unfastened room at the dorsum of the temple, sometimes used as a exchequer ) was sometimes present ( for a temple groundplan see Richter 1987, 22 ) . These alterations in layout are shown by the sequence of temples at Thermon between the 9th and late 7th centuries BC ( see program in Stierl in 2001, 42 ) . Thus the development of the temple signifier was one in which tradition and invention can be seen from the beginning. The earlier edifices were non the great marble buildings of ulterior times but were constructed of wood with thatched roofs ( Stierlin 2001, 44 ) . Over clip rock and tile came to replace wood ; sometimes instead than strike harding down a temple and get downing from abrasion, wooden columns would be replaced in situ by rock columns in a procedure known as petrifaction ( Stierlin 2001, 46 ) . The ancient Greek tourer and author Pausanias ( 5.16.1 ) vividly described an ancient oak pillar still in topographic point in the rock temple of Hera at Olympia. Columns of assorted diameters made up of different Numberss of column membranophones can still be seen at this temple, attesting to the ad hoc nature of the temple’s transmutation. Replacing wood with rock besides led to the petrifying in rock of some of the noteworthy architectural characteristics of the wooden temples – fluted columns, triglyphs, dentils, gutae, roof building and coffering for illustration ( see Boardma n 1993, 122 and Richter 1987, 25 for illustrations ; Stierlin 2001, 48 ) . This heterotaxy into rock conserved the signifier of temples that had developed in wood but the act of petrifaction is itself advanced. It might be speculated that rock immortalised the temple and made it a adjustment and lasting place for the God. Before continuing to discourse tradition and invention in the Periclean edifice programme, a few words should be said about the development of the two chief Grecian orders, the Doric and Ionic ( see comparative illustrations in Stierlin 2001, 49-50 ) as these are cardinal to understanding the development of the Acropolis. The Doric order developed in the Grecian mainland and Greek southern Italy and Sicily and is typified by broader columns without bases, tapering towards the top, heavier entablature with jumping triglyphs and metopes, the latter sometimes with carven ornament ( Stierlin 2001, 52 ) . A hexastyle ( sic column ) facade was usual. The Ionic order developed subsequently ( c590BC ) in Grecian Asia Minor. Columns were more slender, had moulded bases and were non markedly tapered. The capital had two spiral-scroll spirals and the lighter entablature was non broken into triglyphs/metope form, leting uninterrupted ornament. From the groundplans, Ionic temples, such as that of Heraion at Samos and Artemision of Ephesus besides appear more hypostyle than peristyle, holding two ( dipteral ) rows of columns instead than the Doric one and frequently with an octostyle ( eight column ) frontage ( see programs in Stierlin 2001, 105, 106 ) . The two orders have been contrasted as masculine, knee bend, unsmooth and feminine, elegant and refined severally ( Stierlin 2001, 49 ) and at the clip of the Periclean edifice programme were ‘still basically distinguishable regional styles’ ( Rhodes 1995, 54 ) . The Periclean temple to Athena Parthenos, or Parthenon, was built between 447 and 438BC by the designers Iktinos and Kallikrates and the sculpturer Phidias, and formed the centerpiece of the edifice programme of the political leader Pericles ( Stierlin 2001, 183 ) . This programme sought to laud Athens and in the instance of the Acropolis, to retrace the temples burned by the Persians in the early 5th century BC. It has been said to tag ‘the flood tide of the Doric style’ for the harmoniousness of its proportions, the polishs in its construction and its sculptural ornaments ( Richter 1987, 33 ) . However, in comparing to the somewhat earlier temple of Zeus at Olympia ( finished about 460BC ) , we can see that while the latter is about strictly Doric in manner, ‘the Parthenon’s signifier and spirit partakes liberally of the Ionic’ ( Rhodes 1995, 74 ) . This combination of Doric and Ionic can clearly be seen on a groundplan ( eg Stierlin 2001, 191 ) , w hich reveal an octostyle peripteral Doric portico ( 8 by 17 columns ) , instead than a Doric hexastyle, while six more slender Doric columns behind the octostyle frontages suggest a dipteral colonnade, an Ionic characteristic. The cella was divided into two suites, a smaller western room, the Hall of the Virgins and the eastern naos that housed the statue of the Athena, both approached from the exterior and non connected. The Hall of the Virgins contained four Ionic columns while the naos was divided into three naves by a overlying Doric colonnade following the walls and returning behind the statue, a first in temple architecture ( Rhodes 1995, 87 ) . Of class the usage of an Ionic frieze around the cella should non be overlooked. The Parthenon seems advanced in its deliberate commixture of Doric and Ionic elements ( Rhodes 1995, 146 ) . However, some of these elements that may look advanced can be found elsewhere and on much earlier temples. For illustration, the 6th century Doric peripteral temple of Artemis on Corfu had an octostyle facade and the same proportion of columns ( 8 by 17 ) as the mid-fifth century Parthenon, every bit good as two rows of columns in the cella ( Lawrence1996, 77 ) . The temple of Athena at Paestum in southern Italy is a Doric hexastyle temple of around 510BC but the interior portico utilizations eight Ionic columns in an Ionic agreement ( Stierlin 2001, 74 ; see program in Richter 1987, 30 ) . It was besides noted that the Parthenon made usage of overlying porticoes in the naos ( see Reconstruction in Boardman 1993, 118 ) . These were besides used in the modern-day 2nd temple of Hera at Paestum ( 460-440BC ) and Stierlin suggested that in the instance of the latter they may hold been used as a deliberate archaizing component, mentioning to the temple of Aphaia on Aegina, built around 500BC ( Stierlin 2001, 79 ; comparison exposures in Stierlin 2001, 78 and 148 ) . In a needfully ( to suit the expansive statue of Athena ) broad temple like the Parthenon, 30.88m at the stylobate, they may hold been more practical every bit good as attractive. It can so be seen that while the Parthenon may be advanced in the context of mainland Greek temples, there are analogues in the Grecian temples of southern Italy and Sicily that provide case in points for blending Doric and Ionic characteristics ( Rhodes 1995, 198n12 ) every bit good as characteristics from Archaic temples on Corfu and Aegina. The frequently discussed architectural polish of the curvature or splaying of the Parthenon was besides a traditional Doric solutions to drainage, although in the Parthenon it succeeds in forestalling the temple from looking knee bend ( Rhodes 1995, 74 ) . The chief factor in the l ayout of the Parthenon was in fact the older temple that it replaced, instead than any genuinely fresh programs. The designers of the Parthenon did non work in isolation but in a cultural and lingual zone stretching from Italy to Cyprus, with mainland Greece in the center and while the Parthenon is every bit alone as every Grecian temple it may be said to hold incorporated traditional inventions in a traditional manner. Traveling on to see briefly two other Periclean edifices on the Acropolis, the Erechtheion and the Propylaia, the Erechtheion, ceremonially the most of import edifice of the Acropolis, is a existent invention in the sense that instead than being a canonical temple, it is fitted to the mythic and physical landscape of the Acropolis. As such, it was constructed on two degrees, though with three different roof degrees, and incorporated the cults of Athena in the east cella, and Poseidon-Erechtheus in the West cella and north porch ( Rhodes 1995, 131-36 ) . The Erechtheion is Ionic in its columns and friezes and provides a complement to the Parthenon with its human-shaped Karyatid columns following a hundred twelvemonth old Ionic tradition begun by the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi ( Stierlin 2001, 208 ) . The Propylaia, or gateway to the Acropolis foreshadowed this balance once more by integrating both traditional Doric hexastyle outside combined with an internal Ionic colonnade. Rhodes s ays of its designer: ‘Mnesikles’ greatest part to the history and way of Grecian architecture was likely his vision of Doric and Ionic as equal constituents of a greater Grecian architecture’ ( 1995, 73 ) . It is possible that in a sense the Parthenon is more important to its modern adorants than its builders and that there is a desire to warrant this by mention to invention. Grecian temples were built non on subjective rules of aesthetic beauty but on mathematical and spiritual rules of harmoniousness and temples that reflected a peculiar harmoniousness were successful ( Stierlin 2001, 64-74 ) . The Periclean edifice programme did non radically innovate from a inactive or dead tradition: the edifices examined above surely did unite many elements to accomplish their alone purposes but so no two Grecian temples were of all time the same. Throughout their 1000 plus twelvemonth history, Grecian temple edifices and their builders combined traditional elements with limited inventions that by and large belonged to the temple edifice tradition guided by the rules of harmoniousness –a temple should be temple, after all.BibliographyBoardman, J. 1993. ‘The Classical Period’ , in Boardman, J. ( ed. ) 1993.The Oxford History of Classical Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 83-150. Johnston, A. 1993. ‘Pre-Classical Greece’ , in Boardman, J. ( ed. ) 1993.The Oxford History of Classical Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11-82. Lawrence, A.W. and Tomlinson, R.A. 1996.Grecian Architecture.( 5Thursdayedition, Pelican History of Art ) . New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Rhodes, R.F. 1995.Architecture and Meaning on the Acropolis.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richter, G.M.A. 1987.A Handbook of Greek Art.( 9Thursdayedition ) . Oxford: Phaidon. Sowerby, R. 1995.The Greeks.London: Routledge. Stierlin, H. 2001.Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon.Koln: Taschen. Whitley, J. 2001.The Archaeology of Ancient Greece.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tradition & Innovation (history of architecture) Tradition & A ; Innovation ( history of architecture ) Much great architecture of the yesteryear has proceeded by polishing rigorous conventions without truly oppugning them. A much smaller organic structure of work has moved frontward through extremist invention. Use illustrations to demo ( among other things ) that what appears to be radicalism or preservation is non ever what it seems. You could follow a sequence in one topographic point ( such as Brunelleshi ‘s Florence or Pericles ‘ Athens ) or run more widely pulling trial instances from assorted times and topographic points. The Athenian Parthenon has captured the imaginativeness for about two and half thousand old ages. Writers frequently speak of it as the finest architectural accomplishment of the Greeks, incarnating the classical values of harmoniousness and restraint, composure, pose and repose, proportion and economic system ( eg Sowerby 1995, 168 ) . However, the Parthenon is simply one of legion edifices completed as portion of the alleged Periclean edifice programme of the 2nd half of the 5th century BC, which can be examined for the manner their designers made usage of tradition and invention. Other edifices, such as the hypostyle Periclean Odeion that owes much to non-Greek Iranian traditions, likely due to their province of saving and less appealing scene, have tended to be sidelined in treatments of this nature, but are of import however. This essay will first discuss invention and tradition in the development the Grecian temple from its beginnings to the mid-fifth century BC and so research invention and tradition in the Periclean edifice programme itself, associating these to the wider context of Grecian temple architecture. For the Greeks, architecture was a term reserved for public and sacred edifices as opposed to private and domestic buildings ( Whitley 2001, 279 ) . Of these public and sacred edifices, the temple is possibly the most well-known and characteristic signifier, which besides incorporated into their programme sculpture, painting and composing ( Richter 1987, 19 ) . Temples possibly developed from the Mycenaean megaron, a rectangular edifice with a columned porch that formed the cardinal edifice of Late Bronze Age castles ( see program in Stierlin 2001, 34 ) but their beginning in early apsidal edifices, such as that of Lefkandi seems more assured ( see program in Johnston 1993, 25 ) . The architectural significance of these edifices is that they make usage of the colonnade, making an outer portico around the cella ( the inside edifice ) and can therefore be described as peristyle or peripteral ( of a temple ) . Presumably this development occurred from the practical concern of roofing th ese big edifices, which besides used an axial colonnade for support, but was retained, going possibly the specifying feature of Grecian temples, surely still seeable in those of much later periods including the Periclean Parthenon. The reversible roof besides led to the creative activity of a pediment, the triangular infinite or gable formed by the roof above the entryway that would be used to border architectural sculpture. An early illustration of such a adorned pediment from the early 6th century BC is from the temple of Artemis on Corfu ( Johnston 1993, 47-48 ) . It is interesting that, for whatever ground, the apsis was non retained in ulterior edifices and alternatively an opisthodomos ( an unfastened room at the dorsum of the temple, sometimes used as a exchequer ) was sometimes present ( for a temple groundplan see Richter 1987, 22 ) . These alterations in layout are shown by the sequence of temples at Thermon between the 9th and late 7th centuries BC ( see program in Stierl in 2001, 42 ) . Thus the development of the temple signifier was one in which tradition and invention can be seen from the beginning. The earlier edifices were non the great marble buildings of ulterior times but were constructed of wood with thatched roofs ( Stierlin 2001, 44 ) . Over clip rock and tile came to replace wood ; sometimes instead than strike harding down a temple and get downing from abrasion, wooden columns would be replaced in situ by rock columns in a procedure known as petrifaction ( Stierlin 2001, 46 ) . The ancient Greek tourer and author Pausanias ( 5.16.1 ) vividly described an ancient oak pillar still in topographic point in the rock temple of Hera at Olympia. Columns of assorted diameters made up of different Numberss of column membranophones can still be seen at this temple, attesting to the ad hoc nature of the temple’s transmutation. Replacing wood with rock besides led to the petrifying in rock of some of the noteworthy architectural characteristics of the wooden temples – fluted columns, triglyphs, dentils, gutae, roof building and coffering for illustration ( see Boardma n 1993, 122 and Richter 1987, 25 for illustrations ; Stierlin 2001, 48 ) . This heterotaxy into rock conserved the signifier of temples that had developed in wood but the act of petrifaction is itself advanced. It might be speculated that rock immortalised the temple and made it a adjustment and lasting place for the God. Before continuing to discourse tradition and invention in the Periclean edifice programme, a few words should be said about the development of the two chief Grecian orders, the Doric and Ionic ( see comparative illustrations in Stierlin 2001, 49-50 ) as these are cardinal to understanding the development of the Acropolis. The Doric order developed in the Grecian mainland and Greek southern Italy and Sicily and is typified by broader columns without bases, tapering towards the top, heavier entablature with jumping triglyphs and metopes, the latter sometimes with carven ornament ( Stierlin 2001, 52 ) . A hexastyle ( sic column ) facade was usual. The Ionic order developed subsequently ( c590BC ) in Grecian Asia Minor. Columns were more slender, had moulded bases and were non markedly tapered. The capital had two spiral-scroll spirals and the lighter entablature was non broken into triglyphs/metope form, leting uninterrupted ornament. From the groundplans, Ionic temples, such as that of Heraion at Samos and Artemision of Ephesus besides appear more hypostyle than peristyle, holding two ( dipteral ) rows of columns instead than the Doric one and frequently with an octostyle ( eight column ) frontage ( see programs in Stierlin 2001, 105, 106 ) . The two orders have been contrasted as masculine, knee bend, unsmooth and feminine, elegant and refined severally ( Stierlin 2001, 49 ) and at the clip of the Periclean edifice programme were ‘still basically distinguishable regional styles’ ( Rhodes 1995, 54 ) . The Periclean temple to Athena Parthenos, or Parthenon, was built between 447 and 438BC by the designers Iktinos and Kallikrates and the sculpturer Phidias, and formed the centerpiece of the edifice programme of the political leader Pericles ( Stierlin 2001, 183 ) . This programme sought to laud Athens and in the instance of the Acropolis, to retrace the temples burned by the Persians in the early 5th century BC. It has been said to tag ‘the flood tide of the Doric style’ for the harmoniousness of its proportions, the polishs in its construction and its sculptural ornaments ( Richter 1987, 33 ) . However, in comparing to the somewhat earlier temple of Zeus at Olympia ( finished about 460BC ) , we can see that while the latter is about strictly Doric in manner, ‘the Parthenon’s signifier and spirit partakes liberally of the Ionic’ ( Rhodes 1995, 74 ) . This combination of Doric and Ionic can clearly be seen on a groundplan ( eg Stierlin 2001, 191 ) , w hich reveal an octostyle peripteral Doric portico ( 8 by 17 columns ) , instead than a Doric hexastyle, while six more slender Doric columns behind the octostyle frontages suggest a dipteral colonnade, an Ionic characteristic. The cella was divided into two suites, a smaller western room, the Hall of the Virgins and the eastern naos that housed the statue of the Athena, both approached from the exterior and non connected. The Hall of the Virgins contained four Ionic columns while the naos was divided into three naves by a overlying Doric colonnade following the walls and returning behind the statue, a first in temple architecture ( Rhodes 1995, 87 ) . Of class the usage of an Ionic frieze around the cella should non be overlooked. The Parthenon seems advanced in its deliberate commixture of Doric and Ionic elements ( Rhodes 1995, 146 ) . However, some of these elements that may look advanced can be found elsewhere and on much earlier temples. For illustration, the 6th century Doric peripteral temple of Artemis on Corfu had an octostyle facade and the same proportion of columns ( 8 by 17 ) as the mid-fifth century Parthenon, every bit good as two rows of columns in the cella ( Lawrence1996, 77 ) . The temple of Athena at Paestum in southern Italy is a Doric hexastyle temple of around 510BC but the interior portico utilizations eight Ionic columns in an Ionic agreement ( Stierlin 2001, 74 ; see program in Richter 1987, 30 ) . It was besides noted that the Parthenon made usage of overlying porticoes in the naos ( see Reconstruction in Boardman 1993, 118 ) . These were besides used in the modern-day 2nd temple of Hera at Paestum ( 460-440BC ) and Stierlin suggested that in the instance of the latter they may hold been used as a deliberate archaizing component, mentioning to the temple of Aphaia on Aegina, built around 500BC ( Stierlin 2001, 79 ; comparison exposures in Stierlin 2001, 78 and 148 ) . In a needfully ( to suit the expansive statue of Athena ) broad temple like the Parthenon, 30.88m at the stylobate, they may hold been more practical every bit good as attractive. It can so be seen that while the Parthenon may be advanced in the context of mainland Greek temples, there are analogues in the Grecian temples of southern Italy and Sicily that provide case in points for blending Doric and Ionic characteristics ( Rhodes 1995, 198n12 ) every bit good as characteristics from Archaic temples on Corfu and Aegina. The frequently discussed architectural polish of the curvature or splaying of the Parthenon was besides a traditional Doric solutions to drainage, although in the Parthenon it succeeds in forestalling the temple from looking knee bend ( Rhodes 1995, 74 ) . The chief factor in the l ayout of the Parthenon was in fact the older temple that it replaced, instead than any genuinely fresh programs. The designers of the Parthenon did non work in isolation but in a cultural and lingual zone stretching from Italy to Cyprus, with mainland Greece in the center and while the Parthenon is every bit alone as every Grecian temple it may be said to hold incorporated traditional inventions in a traditional manner. Traveling on to see briefly two other Periclean edifices on the Acropolis, the Erechtheion and the Propylaia, the Erechtheion, ceremonially the most of import edifice of the Acropolis, is a existent invention in the sense that instead than being a canonical temple, it is fitted to the mythic and physical landscape of the Acropolis. As such, it was constructed on two degrees, though with three different roof degrees, and incorporated the cults of Athena in the east cella, and Poseidon-Erechtheus in the West cella and north porch ( Rhodes 1995, 131-36 ) . The Erechtheion is Ionic in its columns and friezes and provides a complement to the Parthenon with its human-shaped Karyatid columns following a hundred twelvemonth old Ionic tradition begun by the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi ( Stierlin 2001, 208 ) . The Propylaia, or gateway to the Acropolis foreshadowed this balance once more by integrating both traditional Doric hexastyle outside combined with an internal Ionic colonnade. Rhodes s ays of its designer: ‘Mnesikles’ greatest part to the history and way of Grecian architecture was likely his vision of Doric and Ionic as equal constituents of a greater Grecian architecture’ ( 1995, 73 ) . It is possible that in a sense the Parthenon is more important to its modern adorants than its builders and that there is a desire to warrant this by mention to invention. Grecian temples were built non on subjective rules of aesthetic beauty but on mathematical and spiritual rules of harmoniousness and temples that reflected a peculiar harmoniousness were successful ( Stierlin 2001, 64-74 ) . The Periclean edifice programme did non radically innovate from a inactive or dead tradition: the edifices examined above surely did unite many elements to accomplish their alone purposes but so no two Grecian temples were of all time the same. Throughout their 1000 plus twelvemonth history, Grecian temple edifices and their builders combined traditional elements with limited inventions that by and large belonged to the temple edifice tradition guided by the rules of harmoniousness –a temple should be temple, after all.BibliographyBoardman, J. 1993. ‘The Classical Period’ , in Boardman, J. ( ed. ) 1993.The Oxford History of Classical Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 83-150. Johnston, A. 1993. ‘Pre-Classical Greece’ , in Boardman, J. ( ed. ) 1993.The Oxford History of Classical Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 11-82. Lawrence, A.W. and Tomlinson, R.A. 1996.Grecian Architecture.( 5Thursdayedition, Pelican History of Art ) . New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Rhodes, R.F. 1995.Architecture and Meaning on the Acropolis.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richter, G.M.A. 1987.A Handbook of Greek Art.( 9Thursdayedition ) . Oxford: Phaidon. Sowerby, R. 1995.The Greeks.London: Routledge. Stierlin, H. 2001.Greece from Mycenae to the Parthenon.Koln: Taschen. Whitley, J. 2001.The Archaeology of Ancient Greece.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Composer from Baroque to the Classical period Essay

Composer from Baroque to the Classical period - Essay Example Bach was a violin and harpsichord virtuoso. His main style was of polyphonic texture whereby, the chords progressions directed the music’s motion, which made him a master of the fugue. Bach’s music was very baroque, a term adapted as a connotation for extravagant, excess, and emotionally expressive music. Therefore, his music was full of emotion and featured a basso continuo. Bach composed a total 1128 works for voice, orchestra, organ, keyboard, chamber, and canon. Bach also composed works that were either fragmented, spurious doubtful, or lost. Sebastian Bach composed for the organ, the harpsichord, the clavichord, and the violin. He lived in Germany. Bach’s cooperation with royalty was fuelled by his devotion to write Christian music, as evidenced by his compositions in his time at the Lutheran church. There were no direct political motives to write what he did. Bach’s influence on the Classical era is not profound. Although the classical musicians adop ted a new style of writing music, Mozart took interest in Sebastian Bach’s polyphonic tones in his Jupiter composition. Bach’s death in 1950 marked the end of the Baroque era and the beginning of the Classical period. Making him the most influential composer from the Baroque era to the Classical era. The Baroque period of music is a period that encouraged self-expression, formation of counterpoints, certain degrees of ornamentation and open forms. The period is known for its inconsistency; although the music in this era shares the same genre.

Operation Management Particularies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Operation Management Particularies - Essay Example While solving the problem you should remember that the main purpose of each entrepreneur is to minimize costs and to maximize benefits. In this case its evident that mathematic methods should be applied. The economist usually use linear programming Linear programming is an important field of optimization for several reasons. Many practical problems in operations research can be expressed as linear programming problems. Certain special cases of linear programming, such as network flow problems and multicommodity flow problems are considered important enough to have generated much research on specialized algorithms for their solution. A number of algorithms for other types of optimization problems work by solving LP problems as sub-problems. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_ programming). To use the method you problem should be equated in the form of mathematic So linear function is c1x1+ c2x2+ c3x3 min. c1- number of loaders c2-number of tracks c3- every loader's salary. X1- number of parts loaded by each employee x2- truck tonnage x3- number of loaders. Restrictions are x1,x2, x3 c1.c2 c3 0. a11x1+a12x2+a13x36 a21x1+ a22x2 +a23x312 Forfeit is the return of property someone belonging or in return for a bad happening as part of a contractual or legal transgression (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forfeit). ... c1- number of loaders c2-number of tracks c3- every loader's salary. X1- number of parts loaded by each employee x2- truck tonnage x3- number of loaders. Restrictions are x1,x2, x3 c1.c2 c3 0. a11x1+a12x2+a13x36 a21x1+ a22x2 +a23x312 Than the problem is expressed in the form of matrix and solved by means of simplex method. Q2 In case of the trucks breaking down the manufacturer is able to demand a forfeit. According to the civil law debtor is obligated to compensate losses caused by the debtor's failure. Forfeit is the return of property someone belonging or in return for a bad happening as part of a contractual or legal transgression (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forfeit). Usually it is only done in the most extreme circumstances, in which the forfeiting party believes there is simply no way to continue under the present circumstances It may be counted as utilization of the parts by the manufacturer multiplied by hours of stoppage. Q3 There are some ways to ensure that the manufacturer doesn't run of the parts. First you can provide more parts than it is required and the manufacturers could stock it in their warehouse. Second it could be solved by insurances. The main principles of insurance are 1. there must be a larger number of similar objects so the financial outcome of insuring the pool of exposures is predictable. Therefore they can calculate a "fair" premium. 2. the losses have to be accidental and unintentional from the point of view of the insured. 3. the losses must be measurable, identifiable in location, time, and be definite. They also want the losses to cause economic hardship. That is, so the insured has an incentive to protect and preserve the property to minimize the probabilty that the losses occur. 4. the loss

ACADEMIC WRITING Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ACADEMIC WRITING - Assignment Example Most of the best universities in the globe are either located in the United States of America or the United Kingdom. Both regions have higher education system that is rich and of greater quality. Research facilities are considered excellent. The countries possess a culture that promotes academic freedom and intellectualism. Despite a the number of similarities between the two countries, it takes a longer period of time to complete an undergraduate degree in the united states than in the united kingdom except in Scotland where a degree certificate is offered after 4 years of learning. A person with an undergraduate degree can move directly to a PHD in both systems, though it is common for a person to go through the master’s program in the United Kingdom before moving to the PHD. The United States system of education permit emphasizes on getting a range of knowledge from the various subjects that are different unlike in the United Kingdom that emphasized on depth and understandi ng of the subject of choice (Mahroum, 2010). Both regions experience differences in the structure of their education system. In the United Kingdom children have to attend primary and secondary education legally from the age of five to sixteen years. The system of education in the United Kingdom is divided into various key stages. The key stage one and two are done in the primary school from the age of 7 to 11 years whereas key stage three and four are offered in secondary school. Assessment is done at the end of each stage. The most essential assessment is carried out at the age of 16 years when learners sit for general certificate of secondary education (Plank, 2010). Once the students are through with their exams at this level, they may chose to further their education or move into the working world. The system in the United States of America is however different. Unlike the United Kingdom where

Project management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Project management - Essay Example Besides, there is also a requirement for effective risk and problem management in every phase of project life cycle (Richardson and Butler 1-97). Based on this aspect, paper discusses a distinguished project namely RMS Titanic project. THESIS STATEMENT The objective of the paper is to analyse the life cycle of the project. Furthermore, the paper also describes the procedure of resource management, risk management and management of problems throughout the project. ABOUT RMS TITANIC PROJECT Titanic was regarded as the biggest passenger ship around the world. RMS Titanic was a legendary project and was the first ship to use SOS. The RMS Titanic project was initiated by White Star Line organisation in collaboration with Harland and Wolff dockyard. The project started in the year 1910 and finished in the year 1912. Nevertheless, on 15th April in 1912, the RMS Titanic sank in the Atlantic sea. The incident resulted in death of about 1517 people and loss of valuable resources, time and effo rt. At that time, the managing director of the organisation, i.e. White Star was Bruce Ismay. The model of Titanic was designed by Thomas Andrew and the captain of the ship was Edward Smith. These people are the key stakeholders of the project RMS Titanic and were liable for ensuring that every operation is done according to plan (Jones 59-80). PROJECT LIFE CYCLE OF RMS TITANIC The lifecycle of any project consists of five typical phases. The first phase is idea generation phase. In this phase, the project is planned according to expected business requirements and outcomes. The second phase is designing phase, where the architecture and design of a project is decided according to the business requirements. The third phase is construction phase, where the project is implemented according to agreed requirements and prior decisions regarding design. The fourth phase is testing phase where the project is tested to recognise predicted risks as well as procedures for mitigating them. Fina lly, the fifth phase is launch phase, where the project is launched for real time performance (Seacord and Nwosu, â€Å"Life Cycle Activity Areas for Component-Based Software Engineering Processes†). Idea Generation of Titanic Project. During 1908s, White Star was confronting tremendous business pressures due to increased competition in the area of technology and also due to emergence of new entrants in the business segment of the organisation. Furthermore, White Star also faced considerable challenges because of aging technological structure and substandard customer services. As a result, it lost considerable amount of market share and customers. In order to deal with these business issues, White Star developed a business strategy which can leverage emerging technology and can enhance the number of customers. White Star concentrated on improving the quality of journey and passenger experience as a part of its reaction to the competition. This business strategy necessitated h igh investment in new technology. Hence, in order to enhance the business performance, White Star invested in new super liners and attempted to exploit the travelling market in the Atlantic route. The outcome of this investment was initiation of RMS Titanic project which was mostly intended to address the requirements of three passenger classes with topmost priority on upper class customer segment. Therefore, in RMS Titanic project, the emphasis was on the comfort of passengers, rather than the speed

Marketing - Segmentation strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing - Segmentation strategy - Assignment Example Competing is a problem. Financially strong management with a clear commitment to see the company through and keep making profits for the shareholders. Though, when the company started it was the largest facility but soon with the new process, much larger world scale facilities have come up, dwarfing this factory. The company has built a good rapport with the customer which produces the required market capitalisation for the company. Since the market for fertilisers is pretty large there was no dearth of market at any point in time. Opportunities Threats The company is at the threshold of a major change in the agricultural production process because of the continuing increase in the population. It would be wise for the company to capture this market. The market is varying and depends on the success of agriculture across the country. This could become quite seasonal and would cause huge losses of accrued stock if there is no off-take. New types of fertilisers are coming in and the customers are expecting new products from the company. Competition is becoming more and more vibrant and is producing competing products that is hard to match. The new communication systems and the internet have changed the way business is done across the world. It is easy now to ensure that supplies of the material reaches the customers at the right time in the right quantity. The agricultural land in the country is dwindling and is being converted in industrial land. This means there is less land to produce and hence limited fertiliser use. However, there is also the possibility that the smaller land might be using larger quantity of fertilisers in order to bring in the same result in terms of production. Table...Theoretical principles behind the consumer buying decision is matched with the existing reasons based on which the marketing strategy could be fine tuned to suit the market needs. In addition to this, segmentation of the market to clearly target specific products from the company's stable would help in augmenting sales targets and to produce the desired results. This could help in evaluating the business and the marketing strategy of the company. Finally, the consumer perception in terms of the three levels of product / service is visualised and studied to finally close in on the best strategy for marketing the product. The new communication systems and the internet have changed the way business is done across the world. It is easy now to ensure that supplies of the material reaches the customers at the right time in the right quantity. The agricultural land in the country is dwindling and is being converted in industrial land. This means there is less land to produce and hence limited fertiliser use. However, there is also the possibility that the smaller land might be using larger quantity of fertilisers in order to bring in the same result in terms of production. Based on the SWOT analysis done, it is clear that the company should capitalise on the strengths of th

Yahoo Versus Survivors of the Holocaust Essay Example for Free

Yahoo Versus Survivors of the Holocaust Essay The case Yahoo versus Survivors of the Holocaust is based on a lawsuit that was made by a group of French Nazi concentration camp survivors against the website yahoo.com for the auction of Nazi materials and other hate related contents. The Holocaust survivors sued the company in a French court after the US based Yahoo Company refused to respond to the warnings block access to neo-Nazi contents on its US based servers. The case was targeted towards accusing CEO of Yahoo Timothy Koogle as responsible for the controversial auctioning of Nazi artifacts on the Yahoo website and if he is found guilty he faces potential incarceration in France. The case also provides information on the dot.com crash which had a negative impact on Yahoo’s performance which experienced serious decline alongside other companies in the advertising budget. In April 2001, Yahoo suffered a 42% decline in advertising revenue which led to mass exodus of the company’s leading staff and threatened to replace Koogle. The case also point out that Yahoo France which was established in 1996 as a subsidiary of Yahoo International shares similar organizational structure, same look, and tailored its contents according to local tastes. It is therefore, a shared system whereby information that comes up on the company’s US site also shows up on the French site. Thus, there was a challenge in creating a global brand that is able to adapt to suit local tastes. In this case, the challenge of a shared website has led to a lawsuit which was put together in April 2000. La Ligue Contre le Racisme et l’Antisemitisme (LICRA) and the French Jewish Students filed a lawsuit against the US based company Yahoo, for posting Nazi-era contents for sale on the company’s auction site. Yahoo responded to the lawsuit by countersuing LICRA with the US District court for violating of constitutional rights of free speech in the US. Analyze the opportunities and threats of Yahoo establishing subsidiaries in foreign countries which maintain majority ownership. Yahoo International has developed subsidiaries that are suitable for the company image as a major MNC working in Information Technology (IT). The company is establishing subsidiaries in foreign countries around the world so that they can maintain majority ownership. For instance, in Yahoo France, the contents are tailored to fit local culture through specific contents such as sports categories focused on Tour de France, world cup soccer and the French Decathlon; while in the UK these categories focused on rugby, cricket, and equestrian events. Yahoo subsidiaries also enjoy the opportunities of majority ownership which allows the MNC to benefit from IT advancement and ease of transportation which makes it easier for the home and host country to have an effective international business. An example of the expected experience of Yahoo subsidiaries right to maintain majority ownership is similar to MTV network International, the music channel operation that reaches 1 billion people in 18 different languages and 164 countries; MTV management assures host countries that they are not in the business of exporting American culture, they point out their policy of 70% local content (Fatehi, 2008). Like MTV Network International, Yahoo International is advance in that it has developed 24 international sites in 13 languages, in each of its international markets Yahoo built independent directories of local language websites and other contents. The company yahoo is able to benefit this way by attracting 40% users from foreign countries. Nonetheless, the threats of having Yahoo in foreign subsidiaries which maintain majority ownership is that they risk having problems of hosting contents that are not culturally acceptable such as in the case of the Nazi artifacts showing up on the company’s French website and thereby signaling dispute due to local culture. The French representatives, primarily LICRA finds Yahoo as supporting unlawful act of hosting Nazi and other hateful contents which is against the Nazi Symbols Act. The symbols associated with Hitler’s Nazis are attractive to bigots on the Web because they suggest anti-Semitism in an immediate, forceful way to the general public (Poisoning the Web, n.d.). Based on the conflict in thoughts between the US based company and their French subsidiary, there are risks that are involved in providing foreign subsidiaries or their communities’ with the authority to accuse the company’s actions. According to the claim of Yahoo their intentions appear innocent. Thus, Yahoo is able to take a stance to protect their Freedom of Speech so that they do not experience continued accusation associated with hateful contents. Yahoo calls for protection of the First  Amendment of the US Constitution which includes the most basic component of freedom of expression, the right of freedom of speech, the right to freedom of speech allows individuals to express themselves without interference or constraint by the government (First Amendment, 2010). The information on the First Amendment of the US Constitution is important for Yahoo to use in defense of the risks that they could experience from their accusers who have consider them as disobeying th e Anti-Nazi Act and French laws that prohibited the display of Nazi contents and other hateful material. Analyze Yahoo’s social responsibility from a stakeholder perspective Yahoo’s social responsibility in this case will have a negative effect on the stakeholder perspective and their capacity for prosperity due to the conflict laid out in the lawsuits by Yahoo and LICRA. Yahoo is responsible for providing social responsibility to their customers, by providing safe products at reasonable costs. However, Yahoo was accused of showing auctions of Nazi contents on the companys U.S.-based Website which was accessible by French users and thus Yahoo was condemned by French Holocaust survivors. Yahoo’s social responsibility is also negative due to its acts that are found by LICRA as disobeying local laws and customs. Yahoo made progress in a countersuit against LICRA which accused that the French’s decision was in violation of the Communication, Decency Act, and Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Yahoo’s countersuits provide stakeholders with confidence in the organizations ability to overcome the constraints of the lawsuit. Yahoo’s stance in taking on a countersuit is a strong defense which creates opportunity to regain respect for the company and their stakeholders without acknowledging a prejudice intent or reference to Nazi auctions. Take a position on whether Yahoo acted in a manner that was ethically and socially responsible. In the case Yahoo versus survivors of the holocaust who is particularly Jewish students, the company did not meet the high expectancy level of ethical and social responsible standards. This is due to the auction of materials that are intolerant. The web displays of Nazi contents and other  hateful materials which were found on Yahoo website are unethical and unlawful. MNCs are responsible to act in a social responsible way; this includes operating within a certain parameter. There is thus a demand for the company to react quickly toward such contents of hate so that they will protect the company’s image and mission without experiencing accusation. Neo-Nazis use the Web to market merchandise, selling items emblazoned with the instantly recognizable symbols of Hitler’s Nazi party†¦ Like the T-shirt a music fan might buy at a rock concert, one shirt reads Adolf Hitler European Tour 1939 1945(Poisoning the Web, n.d.). Based on such negative intents, Yahoo is obliged to take serious future steps to isolate neo-Nazi contents from the website to protect the company’s image and promote social responsibility and ethics by condemning those that misuse the web to spread hate. Besides excluding Nazi-era memorabilia from the company’s French-language portal, formulate two additional business strategies to address the issues faced by Yahoo as well as the risks associated with implementing those strategies. Besides excluding Nazi era memorabilia from the company’s French language portal, it is important that Yahoo applies additional business strategies to address the issues faced by the company. One strategy that could benefit the organization is the Strategic planning which is the alignment of organizational capabilities with anticipated environmental changes in the pursuit of goal attainment (Fatehi, 2008). This strategy is important because it will provide Yahoo with the understanding of their environment and the forces that are likely to determine how they secure resources and achieve goals. However, there is a downside to this strategy and it is the risks involved in planning strategy which is somehow limited to the extent of difficulties that can occur as Yahoo expands globally. The multiplicity of cultural, sociopolitical, legal, and economic environments creates quantitative and qualitative difficulties (Fatehi, 2008). The problems that are likely to arise from Yahoo’s internationalization are risky and there is a chance that the firm will experience additional complexity that is outside of their strategic planning due to new problems can be a burden to the MNC. Cultural aspects of strategy are important strategies and will be the second business strategy that will address Yahoo’s problems in their foreign  markets. This strategy is important because culture plays a vital role in controlling MNCs to better support them in achieving their goals (Fatehi, 2008). In most business situations individuals are expected to apply self control and abide by culture norms. Cultural aspect of strategy is an important influence in determining the firm’s role in globalization and controlling its foreign operations. The risks of applying culture aspects of strategy is that the cultural difference are vast and vary in concept. Thus, there is a demand for Yahoo to meet cultural differences particularly by understanding the thoughts of foreign cultures. Without understanding the mentality and beliefs of a certain culture where they operate, Yahoo is likely to reencounter difficulties similar to the Nazi artifacts auction. Thus, the risk of cultural aspects of strategy will develop difficulties due to complications from various cultural differences which should be control in order to promote the company’s international objectives. Predict the consequences had Yahoo complied with LICRA’s initial demands. There would have been limited consequences for Yahoo if they had complied with LICRA’s initial demands to remove Nazi contents from their website. Instead, Yahoo initially responded that they had complied with French law on this issue and that there website did have a display or auction of hateful contents or Nazi materials. The case was initially made by LICRA charging Yahoo with illegally hosting auctions of Nazism, thereafter, the French court gave Yahoo a warning to block French residents from viewing Nazi auction or face fines. Yahoo adhering to LICRA would have violated their constitutional rights to protect free speech in the US Constitution. Thus, Yahoo would risk having to address serious issues from their home country about freedom of press which is linked to freedom of speech in the US constitution. The right to freedom of the press guaranteed by the first amendment is not very different from the right to freedom of speech; it allows an individual to express themselves through publication and dissemination; it is part of the constitutional protection of freedom of expression; and it does not afford members of the media any special rights or privileges not afforded to citizens in general (First Amendment, 2010). Yahoo faces the possibility of running into further problems from their users who could use the First Amendment as a bargain power to use the  website without compromising their constitutional rights. It is however a limited consequence if Yahoo is able to respond early to users or law enforcers on the contents display on their websites, this will avoid expenses for lawsuits and avoid challenges in securing revenues for stakeholders. References: 1. Fatehi, K. (2008). Managing internationally: Succeeding in a culturally diverse world (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. 2. First Amendment (2010) Cornell Universitys Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 5/26/2012 from http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/First_amendment 3. Poisoning the Web: Hatred Online (n.d.) Neo-Nazis: Stormtroopers of the Web. Retrieved 5/26/2012 from http://www.adl.org/poisoning_web/neo_nazi.asp